Applied Geophysics

by
Edition: 2nd
Format: Paperback
Pub. Date: 1990-10-26
Publisher(s): Cambridge University Press
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Summary

This is the completely revised and updated version of the popular and highly regarded textbook, Applied Geophysics. It describes the physical methods involved in exploration for hydrocarbons and minerals, which include gravity, magnetic, seismic, electrical, electromagnetic, radioactivity, and well-logging methods. All aspects of these methods are described, including basic theory, field equipment, techniques of data acquisition, data processing and interpretation, with the objective of locating commercial deposits of minerals, oil, and gas and determining their extent. In the fourteen years or so since the first edition of Applied Geophysics, many changes have taken place in this field, mainly as the result of new techniques, better instrumentation, and increased use of computers in the field and in the interpretation of data. The authors describe these changes in considerable detail, including improved methods of solving the inverse problem, specialized seismic methods, magnetotellurics as a practical exploration method, time-domain electromagnetic methods, increased use of gamma-ray spectrometers, and improved well-logging methods and interpretation.

Table of Contents

Preface to the Second Edition xv
Excerpts from Preface to the FirstEdition xvii
Mathematical Conventions xix
Introduction
1(5)
Reference
5(1)
Gravity Methods
6(56)
Introduction
6(1)
General
6(1)
History of Gravity Exploration
6(1)
Principles of Gravity
7(3)
Newton's Law of Gravitation
7(1)
Acceleration of Gravity
7(1)
Gravitational Potential
7(2)
Potential-Field Equations
9(1)
Derivatives of the Potential
9(1)
Gravity of the Earth
10(9)
Figure of the Earth
10(1)
Gravity Reduction
11(4)
Densities of Rocks and Minerals
15(3)
Density Estimates from Field Results
18(1)
Gravity Instruments
19(1)
General
19(1)
Absolute Measurement of Gravity
20(1)
Relative Measurement of Gravity
20(3)
Field Operations
23(3)
Land Surveys
23(1)
Drift Correction
24(1)
Marine Surveys
24(2)
Airborne Gravity
26(1)
Gravity Data Processing
26(8)
Noise, Regionals, and Residuals
26(1)
Graphical Residualizing
27(1)
Surface-Fitting Residualizing Methods
27(1)
Empirical Gridding Methods
27(5)
Second Vertical Derivative Methods
32(1)
Wavelength Filtering
32(1)
Field Continuation
32(2)
Gravity Interpretation
34(14)
General
34(1)
Gravity Effect of a Sphere
35(1)
Gravity Effect of a Horizontal Rod
36(1)
Gravity Effect of a Vertical Cylinder
37(2)
Gravity Effect of a Thin Dipping Sheet
39(1)
Gravity Effect of Horizontal Sheets, Slabs, Dikes, and Faults
40(4)
Applying Simple Models to Actual Anomalies
44(1)
Gravity Effects of Complex Shapes
44(2)
The Direct and Inverse Problems of Interpretation
46(1)
Excess Mass
47(1)
Overburden Effects
48(1)
Maximum-Depth Rules
48(1)
Field Examples
48(4)
Problems
52(10)
References
60(2)
Magnetic Methods
62(74)
Introduction
62(1)
General
62(1)
History of Magnetic Methods
62(1)
Principles and Elementary Theory
63(4)
Classical versus Electromagnetic Concepts
63(1)
B-H Relations: The Hysteresis Loop
64(1)
Magnetostatic Potential for a Dipole Field
65(1)
The General Magnetic Anomaly
66(1)
Poisson's Relation
67(1)
Magnetism of the Earth
67(8)
Nature of the Geomagnetic Field
67(1)
The Main Field
68(4)
The External Magnetic Field
72(1)
Local Magnetic Anomalies
72(1)
Magnetism of Rocks and Minerals
72(1)
Remanent Magnetism
73(1)
Magnetic Susceptibilities of Rocks and Minerals
73(1)
Magnetic Susceptibility Measurements
73(2)
Field Instruments for Magnetic Measurements
75(5)
General
75(1)
Flux-gate Magnetometer
75(2)
Proton-Precession Magnetometer
77(1)
Optically Pumped Magnetometer
78(2)
Gradiometers
80(1)
Instrument Recording
80(1)
Calibration of Magnetometers
80(1)
Field Operations
80(4)
General
80(1)
Airborne Magnetic Surveys
81(2)
Shipborne Magnetic Surveys
83(1)
Ground Magnetic Surveys
83(1)
Gradiometer Surveys
84(1)
Magnetic Effects of Simple Shapes
84(22)
General
84(1)
The Isolated Pole (Monopole)
85(2)
The Dipole
87(1)
Two-Dimensional Features
88(4)
Dipping Dike (Prism)
92(5)
Dipping Sheet
97(3)
Horizontal Sheet (Plate)
100(1)
Semiinfinite Horizontal Sheet: Fault Approximation
100(3)
Contact between Beds of Different Susceptibilities
103(1)
Demagnetization
104(2)
Processing and Interpretation
106(8)
General
106(1)
Crude Interpretation and Structural Aspects
106(1)
Data Processing Operations: The Fourier Transform
107(1)
Derivatives
107(1)
Continuation
107(1)
Spectral Analysis
108(1)
Reduction to the Pole
109(1)
Use of Master Curves for Dikes of Great Depth Extent
109(3)
Matched Filtering
112(1)
Werner Deconvolution
112(1)
Depth Estimates
113(1)
Field Examples
114(10)
Ground Surveys
114(3)
Airborne Surveys
117(7)
Problems
124(12)
References
134(2)
Seismic Methods
136(147)
Introduction
136(4)
Importance of Seismic Work
136(1)
History of Seismic Exploration
137(2)
Outline of the Seismic Reflection Method
139(1)
Seismic Theory
140(22)
Theory of Elasticity
140(3)
Wave Equation and Its Solutions
143(4)
Body Waves: P and S Waves
147(2)
Surface Waves
149(1)
Energy of Waves
149(2)
Wave Motion
151(4)
Partitioning of Energy at an Interface
155(3)
Seismic Velocity
158(4)
Geometry of Seismic Wavepaths
162(13)
Reflection Paths in a Constant Velocity Layer
162(5)
Velocity Gradient and Raypath Curvature
167(2)
Geometry of Refraction Paths
169(6)
Characteristics of Seismic Events
175(11)
Distinguishing Features of Events
175(1)
Reflections and Refractions
175(1)
Diffractions
176(2)
Multiples
178(4)
Surface Waves
182(1)
Effects of Reflector Curvature
182(2)
Types of Seismic Noise
184(1)
Attenuation of Noise
185(1)
Reflection Field Methods and Equipment
186(23)
Field Methods for Land Surveys
186(1)
Field Layouts
187(5)
Field Equipment for Land Surveys
192(10)
Marine Equipment and Methods
202(5)
Measurement of Velocity
207(2)
Refraction Field Methods and Equipment
209(5)
Comparison of Refraction and Reflection Methods
209(1)
In-Line Refraction
209(1)
Broadside Refraction and Fan Shooting
210(1)
Engineering Surveys on Land
211(1)
Marine Refraction Work
212(1)
Refraction Data Reduction
212(2)
Data Processing
214(19)
Data Reduction
214(2)
Introduction to Digital Processing: Fourier Transforms
216(1)
Convolution
217(5)
Correlation
222(4)
Phase Considerations
226(1)
Frequency Filtering
226(3)
Velocity Analysis
229(1)
Common-Midpoint Stacking
229(1)
Apparent-Velocity (Apparent-Dip) Filtering
229(1)
The p-τ Transform
230(1)
Relative-Amplitude Processing
230(1)
Migration or Imaging
230(2)
Measures of Coherence
232(1)
Other Types of Processing
233(1)
Basic Geological Concepts in Petroleum Exploration
233(2)
Basic Concepts
233(2)
Objectives of Interpretation
235(1)
Refraction Interpretation
235(8)
Interpretation of Refraction Records
235(2)
Refraction Interpretation Methods
237(1)
Delay-Time Methods
237(3)
Wavefront Methods
240(2)
Engineering Applications
242(1)
Reflection Interpretation
243(21)
Interpretation Techniques
243(2)
Modeling: Synthetic Seismograms
245(3)
Evidences of Faulting
248(2)
Fold and Flow Structures
250(7)
Reefs
257(5)
Unconformities and Seismic Facies Patterns
262(1)
Use of Velocity Information
262(1)
Hydrocarbon Indicators
262(2)
Specialized Methods
264(9)
Profiling
264(3)
Three-Dimensional Methods
267(3)
Use of Channel Waves
270(1)
Vertical Seismic Profiling
270(1)
Shear Waves in Exploration
271(1)
Variation of Amplitude with Offset
271(1)
Cross-Hole Methods
271(2)
Problems
273(10)
References
280(3)
Electrical Properties of Rocks and Minerals
283(10)
Classification of Electrical Methods
283(1)
Electrical Properties of Rocks and Minerals
283(5)
Electrical Potentials
283(1)
Electrical Conductivities
284(3)
Magnetic Permeability
287(1)
Polarization Potentials
287(1)
Measurement of Electrical Properties of Rocks and Minerals
288(1)
Laboratory Measurement of Resistivity
288(1)
Measurement of Dielectric Constant
288(1)
Typical Values of Electrical Constants of Rocks and Minerals
289(4)
Resistivities of Rocks and Minerals
289(2)
Dielectric Constants of Rocks and Minerals
291(1)
Magnetic Permeability of Minerals
292(1)
References
292(1)
Methods Employing Natural Electrical Sources
293(50)
Self-Potential Method
293(9)
Origin of Potentials
293(3)
Self-Potential Field Equipment
296(1)
Field Procedure
296(1)
Interpretation of Self-Potential Data
297(5)
Telluric and Magnetotelluric Methods
302(25)
Origin and Characteristics of Magnetotelluric Fields and Telluric Currents
302(4)
Elementary Electromagnetic Theory
306(1)
Attenuation of EM Fields
307(2)
Boundary Conditions
309(1)
Magnetotelluric Fields
309(2)
Field Equipment and Operations
311(3)
Interpretation of Telluric Data
314(3)
Interpretation of Magnetotelluric Data
317(10)
Field Examples
327(8)
Self-Potential
327(1)
Tellurics and Magnetotellurics
327(8)
Problems
335(8)
References
342(1)
Electromagnetic Methods
343(179)
Introduction and Historical Background
343(1)
Electromagnetic Theory
343(18)
Vector and Scalar Potentials
343(1)
Description of EM Fields; Biot--Savart Law
344(1)
Field in the Frequency Domain
345(5)
Combination of FD Fields
350(3)
Mutual Inductance
353(2)
Fields in the Time Domain
355(6)
EM Equipment
361(3)
General
361(1)
Power Sources
361(1)
Transmitter Loops
362(1)
Receiver Coils
362(1)
Receiver Amplifiers
362(1)
Indicators
363(1)
Compensating Networks
363(1)
EM Field Systems for Ground Surveys
364(13)
General
364(1)
Frequency-Domain Systems; Dip-Angle Measurements
364(6)
FD Systems for Phase-Component Measurements
370(2)
Time-Domain EM Ground Systems
372(4)
Measurement of H
376(1)
Assessment of EM Ground Methods
377(1)
Airborne EM Systems
377(6)
General
377(1)
Quadrature Method
377(1)
Turair System
377(1)
Airborne VLF
378(1)
Phase-Component Measurements
378(1)
Transient (Input) Method
379(4)
Cryogenic EM System
383(1)
Assessment of Airborne EM
383(1)
EM Field Procedures
383(1)
Interpretation
383(94)
Introduction
383(2)
General Interpretation Procedure
385(1)
Ground Systems; FDEM over Dipping Sheet
385(24)
Ground Systems; TDEM over Dipping Sheet
409(27)
The Sphere Model in FD and TD Ground Systems
436(5)
Layered Structure: EM Depth Sounding
441(9)
Interpretation of Airborne EM Data
450(4)
Turair
454(1)
Airborne VLF
454(2)
Phase-Component AEM
456(4)
Resistivity Mapping
460(4)
Input AEM
464(13)
Field Examples
477(27)
Problems
504(18)
References
519(3)
Resistivity Methods
522(56)
Introduction
522(1)
Elementary Theory
522(5)
Potentials in Homogeneous Media
522(1)
Single Current Electrode at Depth
523(1)
Single Current Electrode at Surface
523(1)
Two Current Electrodes at Surface
524(1)
Current Distribution
525(2)
Effect of Inhomogeneous Ground
527(5)
Introduction
527(1)
Distortion of Current Flow at a Plane Interface
527(1)
Distortion of Potential at a Plane Interface
527(2)
Surface Potential due to Horizontal Beds
529(1)
Potential Due to Buried Sphere
530(1)
Effect of Anisotropic Ground
531(1)
Effect of Topography
532(1)
Equipment for Resistivity Field Work
532(3)
Power Sources
532(2)
Meters
534(1)
Electrodes and Wire
535(1)
Electrode Layouts and Field Procedure
535(4)
General
535(1)
Apparent Resistivity
535(1)
Electrode Arrays (Spreads)
535(3)
Resistivity Field Procedures
538(1)
Interpretation
539(26)
Introduction
539(1)
Resistivity Modeling
539(1)
Vertical Sounding; Two Horizontal Beds
539(5)
Vertical Sounding; Multiple Horizontal Beds
544(10)
Lateral Mapping; Vertical Contact
554(5)
The Vertical Dike
559(2)
Mapping Three-Dimensional Anomalies
561(1)
Measuring Overburden Depth and Resistivity
562(3)
Field Examples
565(5)
Problems
570(8)
References
577(1)
Induced Polarization
578(33)
Introduction
578(1)
Sources of the Induced Polarization Effects
578(3)
General
578(1)
Membrane Polarization
579(1)
Electrode Polarization
579(2)
Equivalent Electrical Circuits
581(1)
Induced Polarization Measurements
581(3)
General
581(1)
Time-Domain Measurements
581(1)
Frequency-Domain Measurements
582(1)
Relative Phase Shift and Phase Components
582(1)
Magnetic Induced Polarization (MIP) Measurements
583(1)
Relation between Time- and Frequency-Domain IP Measurements
583(1)
IP Response Examples
583(1)
IP Field Operations
584(7)
General
584(1)
Field Equipment
584(4)
Field Procedures
588(1)
Noise Sources
589(2)
Interpretation
591(11)
Plotting Methods
591(4)
General Interpretation
595(1)
Theoretical and Model Work
596(6)
Field Examples
602(2)
Problems
604(7)
References
609(2)
Radioactivity Method
611(34)
Introduction
611(1)
Principles of Radioactivity
611(9)
Constituents of the Nucleus
611(1)
Nuclear Disintegrations
612(2)
Radioactive Decay Processes
614(3)
Radioactive Equilibrium
617(1)
Units
618(1)
Radioactivity of Rocks and Minerals
619(1)
Age Determination Using Radioisotopes
619(1)
Instruments
620(8)
Introduction
620(1)
Geiger--Muller Counter
620(1)
Scintillation Meter
621(1)
Gamma-Ray Spectrometer
622(5)
Miscellaneous Instruments
627(1)
Calibration of Instruments
628(1)
Field Operations
628(1)
Interpretation
629(5)
Field Examples
634(3)
Problems
637(8)
References
644(1)
Geophysical Well Logging
645(55)
Introduction
645(3)
Uses of Well Logging
645(1)
History of Well Logging
645(1)
General Aspects of Well Logging
646(1)
Rock Property Measurements
647(1)
Resistivity Methods
648(6)
Introduction to Resistivity Logging
648(1)
Normal Resistivity Logging
649(1)
Lateral Arrangement
650(1)
Microlog
650(1)
Focused-Current Logs
651(1)
Induction Log
652(2)
Resistivity Logging in Mineral Search
654(1)
Self-Potential (SP) Logging
654(5)
Sources of SP
654(1)
Instrumentation
655(1)
Uses of SP Curves in Oil-Well Logging
656(2)
Uses of SP Curves in Mineral Logging
658(1)
Geological Interpretation of SP
658(1)
The Dipmeter
659(4)
Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Method
663(2)
Induced Polarization Logging
665(1)
Elastic-Wave (Acoustic) Methods
665(8)
Elastic Waves in Boreholes
665(2)
Sonic Log
667(3)
Amplitude and Full-Waveform Logs
670(2)
Borehole Televiewer
672(1)
Nuclear Methods
673(8)
Nuclear Processes
673(2)
Gamma-Ray Logging
675(1)
Density Log
676(1)
Neutron Logging
677(4)
Gravity, Magnetic, and Thermal Methods
681(2)
Gravity and Magnetic Field Logging
681(1)
Susceptibility Log
681(1)
Nuclear Magnetic-Resonance Log
682(1)
Thermal Logging
683(1)
Well-Log Interpretation
683(1)
General
683(1)
Combining Measurements from Several Logs
683(1)
Field Examples
684(6)
Analysis of an Oil Sand
684(1)
Analysis of Carbonate Section
684(1)
Coal Identification
684(1)
Evaporites
685(2)
Sulfur
687(1)
Slate and Chert
687(1)
Mineral Exploration
687(2)
Borehole Methods in the USSR
689(1)
Problems
690(10)
References
698(2)
Integrated Geophysical Problems
700(27)
Introduction
700(1)
Examples and Problems
701(26)
Appendix A. Mathematical Background 727(18)
Determinants
727(1)
Matrices
728(1)
Vector Analysis
729(4)
Basic Theory
729(1)
Vector Products
730(1)
The Vector Operator ∇
731(1)
Vector Theorems
731(2)
Curvilinear Coordinates
733(2)
Taylor's Series; Maclaurin's Series
735(1)
Binomial Expansion
736(1)
Complex Numbers
736(1)
Method of Least Squares
737(1)
Fourier Series and Transforms
738(2)
Fourier Series
738(1)
Fourier Integral; Fourier Transforms
738(2)
Digital Functions; z Transforms
740(1)
Convolution
740(1)
Correlation
741(1)
Cross-Correlation
741(1)
Autocorrelation
741(1)
Laplace Transforms
741(2)
Basic Theory
741(1)
Calculation of Laplace Transforms
742(1)
Transforms of the Error Function and its Derivatives
742(1)
Linear Systems
743(2)
References
744(1)
Appendix B. Location Determination 745(6)
Direction Determination
745(1)
Distance Measurement
745(1)
Elevation Measurement
745(1)
Angle Measurement
746(1)
Doppler Measurement of Velocity
746(1)
Radionavigation
746(2)
Acoustic and Inertial Positioning
748(1)
Satellite Positioning
749(2)
Reference
750(1)
Index 751

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