
A Practical Guide to Compressor Technology
by Bloch, Heinz P.-
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Summary
Author Biography
Table of Contents
Preface | p. xiii |
Acknowledgments | p. xv |
Positive Displacement Compressor Technology | p. 1 |
Theory | p. 3 |
Symbols | p. 3 |
How a Compressor Works | p. 4 |
First Law of Thermodynamics | p. 8 |
Second Law of Thermodynamics | p. 8 |
Ideal or Perfect Gas Laws | p. 9 |
Boyle's Law | p. 9 |
Charles' Law | p. 9 |
Amonton's Law | p. 9 |
Dalton's Law | p. 9 |
Amagat's Law | p. 10 |
Avogadro's Law | p. 10 |
Perfect Gas Formula | p. 10 |
Vapor Pressure | p. 11 |
Gas and Vapor | p. 11 |
Partial Pressures | p. 11 |
Critical Conditions | p. 13 |
Compressibility | p. 13 |
Generalized Compressibility Charts | p. 14 |
Gas Mixtures | p. 15 |
The Mole | p. 15 |
Specific Volume and Density | p. 16 |
Volume Percent of Constituents | p. 16 |
Molecular Weight of a Mixture | p. 16 |
Specific Gravity and Partial Pressure | p. 17 |
Ratio of Specific Heats | p. 17 |
Pseudo-critical Conditions and Compressibility | p. 18 |
Weight-Basis Items | p. 18 |
Compression Cycles | p. 19 |
Power Requirement | p. 20 |
Compressibility Correction | p. 21 |
Multiple Staging | p. 22 |
Volume References | p. 23 |
Cylinder Clearance and Volumetric Efficiency | p. 24 |
Cylinder Clearance and Compression Efficiency | p. 27 |
Reference | p. 27 |
Reciprocating Process Compressor Design Overview | p. 29 |
Crankshaft Design | p. 33 |
Bearings and Lubrication Systems | p. 37 |
Connecting Rods | p. 37 |
Crossheads | p. 38 |
Frames and Cylinders | p. 39 |
Cooling Provisions | p. 45 |
Pistons | p. 47 |
Piston and Rider Rings | p. 47 |
Valves | p. 48 |
Piston Rods | p. 51 |
Packings | p. 55 |
Cylinder Lubrication | p. 55 |
Distance Pieces | p. 56 |
Reciprocating Compressor Modernization | p. 57 |
Cylinder Upgrades | p. 59 |
Design for Easy Maintenance | p. 59 |
Crosshead Designs and Attention to Reliable Lubrication | p. 61 |
Materials | p. 62 |
Reciprocating Compressor Performance and Monitoring Considerations | p. 63 |
Capacity Control | p. 63 |
Recycle or Bypass | p. 64 |
Suction Throttling | p. 64 |
Suction Valve Unloading | p. 65 |
Clearance Pockets | p. 67 |
More About Cylinder Jacket Cooling and Heating Arrangements | p. 70 |
Methods of Cooling | p. 71 |
Comparing Lubricated and Nonlubricated Conventional Cylinder Construction | p. 73 |
Lubricated Cylinder Designs | p. 73 |
Nonlubricated Cylinder Design | p. 75 |
Compressor Vent and Buffer Systems | p. 76 |
Compressor Instrumentation | p. 77 |
Electric vs. Pneumatic Switches | p. 82 |
Switch Set Points | p. 82 |
Control Panels | p. 82 |
Valve-in-Piston Reciprocating Compressors | p. 83 |
Barrel-Frame Reciprocating Compressors | p. 84 |
Condition Monitoring of Reciprocating Compressors | p. 85 |
Maintenance Strategies | p. 86 |
Justification for Machine Monitoring | p. 86 |
What to Monitor and Why | p. 87 |
References | p. 97 |
Labyrinth Piston Compressors | p. 99 |
Main Design Features | p. 99 |
Energy Consumption | p. 101 |
Sealing Problems | p. 104 |
Hypercompressors | p. 109 |
Introduction | p. 109 |
Cylinders and Piston Seals | p. 111 |
Cylinder Heads and Valves | p. 115 |
Drive Mechanism | p. 117 |
Miscellaneous Problems | p. 119 |
Conclusions | p. 120 |
Metal Diaphragm Compressors | p. 121 |
Introduction | p. 121 |
Terminology | p. 121 |
Description | p. 122 |
Lobe and Sliding Vane Compressors | p. 129 |
Liquid Ring Compressors | p. 135 |
Rotary Screw Compressors and Filter Separators | p. 141 |
Twin-Screw Machines | p. 141 |
Working Phases | p. 141 |
Areas of Application | p. 145 |
Dry vs. Liquid-Injected Machines | p. 145 |
Operating Principles | p. 145 |
Flow Calculation | p. 147 |
Power Calculation | p. 147 |
Temperature Rise | p. 150 |
Capacity Control | p. 150 |
Mechanical Construction | p. 153 |
Industry Experience | p. 154 |
Maintenance History | p. 158 |
Performance Summary | p. 158 |
Oil-Flooded Single-Screw Compressors | p. 160 |
Selecting Modern Reverse-Flow Filter-Separator Technology | p. 163 |
Conventional Filter-Separators vs. SCCs | p. 164 |
Removal Efficiencies | p. 165 |
Filter Quality | p. 165 |
Selecting the Most Suitable Gas Filtration Equipment | p. 166 |
Evaluating the Proposed Configurations | p. 167 |
Life-Cycle-Cost Calculations | p. 168 |
Conclusions | p. 169 |
Reciprocating Compressor Performance and Sizing Fundamentals | p. 171 |
Theoretical Maximum Capacity | p. 172 |
Capacity Losses | p. 173 |
Valve Preload | p. 174 |
Valve and Gas Passage Throttling | p. 174 |
Piston Ring Leakage | p. 176 |
Packing Leakage | p. 177 |
Discharge Valve Leakage | p. 177 |
Suction Valve Leakage | p. 178 |
Heating Effects | p. 178 |
Pulsation Effects | p. 180 |
Horsepower | p. 181 |
Horsepower Adders | p. 181 |
Gas Properties | p. 182 |
Ideal Gas | p. 182 |
Real Gas | p. 182 |
Alternative Equations of State | p. 183 |
Condensation | p. 183 |
Frame Loads | p. 183 |
Compressor Displacement and Clearance | p. 184 |
Staging | p. 186 |
Fundamentals of Sizing | p. 187 |
Number of Stages | p. 187 |
Approximate Horsepower | p. 187 |
Cylinder Bore Requirements | p. 188 |
Frame Load | p. 188 |
Vendor Confirmation | p. 189 |
Sizing Examples | p. 189 |
Dynamic Compressor Technology | p. 197 |
Simplified Equations for Determining the Performance of Dynamic Compressors | p. 205 |
Nonoverloading Characteristics of Centrifugal Compressors | p. 205 |
Stability | p. 205 |
Speed Change | p. 207 |
Compressor Drive | p. 207 |
Calculations | p. 208 |
Design Considerations and Manufacturing Techniques | p. 215 |
Axially vs. Radially Split | p. 215 |
Tightness | p. 215 |
Material Stress | p. 215 |
Nozzle Location and Maintenance | p. 216 |
Design Overview | p. 217 |
Casings | p. 217 |
Flow Path | p. 230 |
Rotors | p. 234 |
Impellers | p. 234 |
Axial Blading | p. 242 |
Seals | p. 242 |
Bearing Configurations | p. 250 |
Radial Bearings | p. 250 |
Thrust Bearings | p. 251 |
Flexure Pivot Tilt Pad Bearings | p. 253 |
Casing Design Criteria | p. 257 |
Casing Manufacturing Techniques | p. 265 |
Stage Design Considerations | p. 273 |
Impeller Manufacturing Techniques | p. 282 |
Rotor Dynamic Considerations | p. 286 |
Fouling Considerations and Coatings | p. 292 |
Polymerization and Fouling | p. 292 |
Fouling and Its Effect on Compressor Operation | p. 293 |
Coating Case Study | p. 294 |
SermaLon Coating | p. 296 |
Results | p. 297 |
Advanced Sealing and Bearing Systems | p. 299 |
Background | p. 299 |
Dry Seals | p. 300 |
Operating Principles | p. 300 |
Operating Experience | p. 302 |
Problems and Solutions | p. 303 |
Dry Seal Upgrade Developments | p. 304 |
Dry Gas Seal Failures Avoided by Gas Conditioning | p. 304 |
Magnetic Bearings | p. 308 |
Operating Principles | p. 308 |
Operating Experience and Benefits | p. 310 |
Problems and Solutions | p. 311 |
Development Efforts | p. 311 |
Thrust-Reducing Seals | p. 312 |
Integrated Designs | p. 314 |
Fluid-Induced Instability and Externally Pressurized Bearings | p. 318 |
Instability Considerations | p. 318 |
Fluid-Induced Instability | p. 318 |
Eccentricity and Stiffness | p. 320 |
Externally Pressurized Bearings and Seals | p. 321 |
Practical Applications | p. 324 |
Rotor Model, Dynamic Stiffness, and Fluid Instability | p. 325 |
Root Locus Stability Analysis | p. 327 |
More About Externally Pressurized Bearings | p. 328 |
Field Data Collection | p. 331 |
Test Stand Data | p. 334 |
Conclusions | p. 336 |
References | p. 336 |
Suggested Reading | p. 336 |
Couplings, Torque Transmission, and Torque Sensing | p. 339 |
Coupling Overview | p. 339 |
Low Overhung Moment | p. 341 |
Low Residual Unbalance Desired | p. 343 |
Long Life and Maintainability | p. 344 |
Continuous Lubrication Not a Cure-All | p. 345 |
Contoured Diaphragm Coupling | p. 345 |
Coupling Retrofits and Upgrades | p. 347 |
Performance Optimization Through Torque Monitoring | p. 349 |
Lubrication, Sealing, and Control Oil Systems for Turbomachinery | p. 357 |
Considerations Common to All Systems | p. 357 |
Seal Oil Considerations | p. 359 |
Compressor Control | p. 363 |
Introduction | p. 363 |
Control System Objectives | p. 363 |
Compressor Maps | p. 364 |
Invariant Coordinates | p. 366 |
Performance Control | p. 368 |
PI and PID Control Algorithms | p. 370 |
Stability Considerations | p. 372 |
Integral or Reset Windup | p. 373 |
Performance Limitations | p. 373 |
Surge Limit | p. 374 |
Stonewall | p. 375 |
Preventing Surge | p. 376 |
Antisurge Control Variables | p. 376 |
Antisurge Control Algorithms | p. 378 |
Controlling Limiting Variables | p. 378 |
Loop Decoupling | p. 379 |
Conclusions | p. 380 |
Reference | p. 380 |
Head-Flow Curve Shape of Centrifugal Compressors | p. 381 |
Compressor Stage | p. 381 |
Elements of the Characteristic Shape | p. 382 |
Basic Slope | p. 382 |
Blade Angle | p. 384 |
Fan Law Effect | p. 385 |
Choke Effect | p. 386 |
Mach Number | p. 387 |
Significance of Gas Weight | p. 387 |
Inducer Impeller Effects on Head Output | p. 388 |
Surge | p. 389 |
Vaned Diffusers | p. 390 |
Vaneless Diffusers | p. 390 |
Equivalent Tip Speeds | p. 391 |
Conclusions | p. 393 |
Use of Multiple-Inlet Compressors | p. 395 |
Critical Selection Criteria | p. 395 |
Head Rise to Surge, Surge Margin, and Overload Margin | p. 396 |
Head per Section | p. 397 |
Compressor Parasitic Flows | p. 398 |
Excess Margins on Other Process Equipment | p. 399 |
Representing Compressor Performance | p. 399 |
Practical Levels of Critical Operating Parameters | p. 399 |
Design of a Sideload Compressor | p. 401 |
Mixing Area | p. 402 |
Aerodynamics | p. 403 |
Temperature Stratification | p. 405 |
Testing | p. 405 |
Test Setup | p. 406 |
Instrumentation | p. 406 |
Testing Procedure | p. 406 |
Accuracy of Test Results | p. 407 |
Evaluation of Results | p. 407 |
Compressor Performance Testing | p. 409 |
Performance Testing of New Compressors | p. 409 |
Re-rate Options | p. 410 |
General Guidelines | p. 410 |
Gas Sampling | p. 411 |
Instrumentation | p. 412 |
Sideload Compressors | p. 414 |
Calculation Procedures | p. 416 |
Shop Testing and Types of Tests | p. 418 |
Field Testing | p. 420 |
Predicting Compressor Performance at Other Than As-Designed Conditions | p. 432 |
How Performance Tests Are Documented | p. 434 |
Design Parameters: What Affects Performance | p. 434 |
What to Seek from Vendors' Documents | p. 435 |
Illustrations and Example | p. 436 |
References | p. 441 |
Procurement, Audit, and Asset Management Decisions | p. 443 |
Incentives to Buy from Knowledgeable and Cooperative Compressor Vendors | p. 443 |
Industry Standards and Their Purpose | p. 444 |
Typical Scope of Standards | p. 444 |
Disclaimers in Standards | p. 447 |
Going Beyond the Standards | p. 447 |
Disadvantages of Cheap Process Compressors | p. 448 |
Audits vs. Reviews | p. 449 |
Staffing and Timing of Audits and Reviews | p. 450 |
Use of Equipment Downtime Statistics | p. 450 |
Auditing and Reviewing Compressors | p. 451 |
Compressor Inspection: Extension of the Audit Effort | p. 465 |
Inspection of a Welded Impeller (Wheel) and the Entire Rotor | p. 466 |
Compressor Installation Specifications | p. 474 |
Field Erection and Installation Specifications for Special-Purpose Machinery | p. 475 |
References | p. 476 |
Reliability-Driven Asset Management Strategies | p. 477 |
Strategy for Reciprocating Compressors | p. 477 |
Process Operating Window | p. 478 |
Breakdown Maintenance | p. 478 |
Time-Based Maintenance | p. 478 |
Equipment Health Monitoring | p. 479 |
Reliability and Maintenance | p. 479 |
Asset Management Strategy | p. 479 |
Achieving Compressor Asset Optimization | p. 486 |
Input Obtained from Workshops | p. 486 |
Conclusions | p. 496 |
References | p. 497 |
Properties of Common Gases | p. 499 |
Shortcut Calculations and Graphical Compressor Selection Procedures | p. 507 |
Bibliography and List of Contributors | p. 551 |
Index | p. 557 |
Table of Contents provided by Ingram. All Rights Reserved. |
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