| Preface |
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xvii | |
| Introduction Introduction to Critical Thinking |
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1 | (11) |
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1 | (1) |
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Experiencing How We Actually Think: An Exercise for the Whole Class To Complete Together |
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2 | (1) |
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Learning from Sharing How We Think |
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3 | (1) |
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What Is Critical Thinking? |
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4 | (2) |
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Comparisons to Creative Thinking |
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6 | (2) |
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Why Learn Critical Thinking? |
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8 | (1) |
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The Habits of Critical Thinking |
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9 | (1) |
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Box: Habits of a Critical Thinker |
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10 | (2) |
| PART I BASICS OF CRITICAL THINKING |
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Chapter 1 Observation Skills: What's Out There? |
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12 | (32) |
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Comparing Our Perceptions |
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13 | (1) |
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13 | (1) |
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14 | (1) |
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15 | (1) |
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Using Observation Skills to Develop New Knowledge |
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16 | (1) |
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Look at Your Fish, by Samuel H. Scudder |
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17 | (3) |
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Core Discovery Writing Application |
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Observing the Familiar: Vegetables or Fruit |
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20 | (5) |
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Evaluating Your Work by Using the Scoring Boxes |
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25 | (1) |
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Alternate Core Discovery Writing Application |
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26 | (9) |
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Observing the Unfamiliar: A Tool |
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26 | (9) |
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The Observation Process: Sensing, Perceiving, Thinking |
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29 | (3) |
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32 | (1) |
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How Discomfort Leads Us to Think |
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33 | (1) |
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Diagram: A Choice for Thinking |
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33 | (1) |
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34 | (1) |
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The Rewards of Skilled Observation |
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35 | (1) |
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35 | (1) |
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38 | (1) |
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38 | (1) |
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Composition Writing Application |
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Survival as a Result of Observing: A Descriptive Narrative Essay |
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39 | (1) |
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by Edward Abbey (1925-89) |
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40 | (3) |
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Optional Internet Research Assignment |
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43 | (1) |
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Chapter 2 Word Precision: How Do I Describe It? |
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44 | (30) |
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On Finding the Right Word |
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45 | (1) |
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Taking an Interest in Dictionaries |
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46 | (2) |
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How Well Do You Use Your Dictionary? |
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48 | (1) |
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Clear Thinking Depends on Clear Word Definitions |
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49 | (1) |
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50 | (1) |
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Diagram: Definition Boundaries |
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51 | (1) |
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51 | (1) |
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52 | (2) |
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The Connotations of Words |
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54 | (1) |
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The Importance of Defining Key Ideas |
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55 | (1) |
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56 | (1) |
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57 | (1) |
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58 | (1) |
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What Is Critical Reading? |
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58 | (3) |
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60 | (1) |
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61 | (1) |
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62 | (1) |
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Composition Writing Application |
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A Short Essay of Definition |
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63 | (3) |
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66 | (1) |
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67 | (2) |
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69 | (1) |
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70 | (3) |
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Advanced Optional Writing Assignment |
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73 | (1) |
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Optional Internet Research Assignment |
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73 | (1) |
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Chapter 3 Facts: What's Real? |
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74 | (34) |
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Beginning with the Word Fact |
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75 | (1) |
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Learning To Recognize Facts |
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75 | (1) |
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76 | (1) |
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77 | (1) |
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78 | (2) |
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Discerning Facts from Fiction |
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80 | (1) |
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81 | (3) |
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Facts and Social Pressure |
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84 | (1) |
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Diagram: Standard and Comparison Lines in the Asch Experiment |
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85 | (1) |
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Facts and Our Limited Senses |
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86 | (1) |
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The Blind Men and The Elephant |
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87 | (4) |
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87 | (4) |
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Core Discovery Writing Application |
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Using a List of Facts to Describe a Photograph |
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91 | (3) |
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Standard We Use to Determine Facts |
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92 | (1) |
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93 | (1) |
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94 | (1) |
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Composition Writing Application |
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Writing a Short Fact-Finding Report |
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94 | (2) |
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The Accident and Aftermath, |
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96 | (3) |
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Advanced Optional Writing Assignment |
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99 | (1) |
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99 | (4) |
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103 | (1) |
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106 | (1) |
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Optional Internet Research Assignment |
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107 | (1) |
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Chapter 4 Inferences: What Follows? |
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108 | (40) |
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Recognizing Inferential Thinking |
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108 | (2) |
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Understanding the Words Infer and Inference |
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110 | (1) |
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Drawing Inferences from Evidence |
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111 | (1) |
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Drawing Inferences from Facts |
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112 | (1) |
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Distinguishing Inferences from Facts |
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112 | (4) |
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How Inferences Can Go Right and Wrong |
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116 | (1) |
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by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle |
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116 | (1) |
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Drawing Inferences from Careful Observation |
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120 | (3) |
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Core Discovery Writing Application |
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Using Facts and Inferences to Describe a Photograph |
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123 | (3) |
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Generalizations Are Inferences |
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125 | (1) |
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Composition Writing Application |
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Writing a Paragraph from Facts, Inferences, and Generalizations |
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126 | (2) |
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Core Discovery Writing Application |
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Analyzing the Use of Facts and Inferences in a Newspaper Article |
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128 | (1) |
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Tougher Grading Better for Students |
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129 | (4) |
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131 | (1) |
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131 | (2) |
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133 | (1) |
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133 | (2) |
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135 | (13) |
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Objectives Review of Part I |
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| PART II PROBLEMS OF CRITICAL THINKING |
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Chapter 5 Assumptions: What's Taken for Granted? |
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148 | (30) |
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149 | (2) |
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Understanding Assumptions |
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151 | (1) |
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152 | (2) |
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Identifying Hidden Assumptions in Reasoning |
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154 | (3) |
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Diagram: Argument with Rug of Assumptions |
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157 | |
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Hidden Assumptions in Arguments |
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156 | (1) |
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Articulating Hidden Assumptions Underlying Arguments |
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157 | (1) |
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Value or Belief Assumptions |
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158 | (2) |
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Assumption Layers in Arguments |
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160 | (2) |
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Diagram: Pyramid of Value Assumptions |
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162 | (1) |
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Assumptions, Incongruities, and Thinking |
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163 | (2) |
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165 | (1) |
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Assumptions: Building an Argument |
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166 | (1) |
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166 | (1) |
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Composition Writing Application |
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Expository Essay: Solving a Problem by Uncovering Assumptions |
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167 | (4) |
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Diagram: Thesis as a Frame |
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168 | (3) |
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Lateral and Vertical Thinking, |
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171 | (3) |
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174 | (2) |
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Advanced Optional Writing Assignment |
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176 | (1) |
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Optional Internet Research Assignment |
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177 | (1) |
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Chapter 6 Opinions: What's Believed? |
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178 | (17) |
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Comparing a Sample of Opinions |
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179 | (1) |
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Why Do We Get Confused by the Word Opinion? |
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179 | (1) |
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An Exercise in Evaluating Opinions |
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180 | (1) |
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181 | (1) |
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Distinguishing Between Responsible and Irresponsible Opinions |
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182 | (1) |
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Looking at Public Opinion Polls |
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183 | (2) |
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Opinions as Claims in Arguments |
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185 | (1) |
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Diagram: Argument Structure |
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186 | (1) |
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Composition Writing Application |
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First Option: A Short Argument Supporting an Opinion |
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187 | (1) |
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Second Option: A Short Expository Essay About an Opinion |
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187 | (1) |
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Third Option: A Short Essay Analyzing Three Opinions 188 |
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188 | (2) |
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189 | (1) |
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189 | (1) |
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190 | (1) |
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190 | (2) |
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192 | (2) |
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Advanced Optional Writing Assignment |
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Opinion on Sykes' or Steyer's Essay |
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194 | (1) |
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Chapter 7 Evaluations: What's Judged? |
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195 | (24) |
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196 | (1) |
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Recognizing Evaluative Words |
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196 | (1) |
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197 | (1) |
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198 | (1) |
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Evaluations Are Not Facts |
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199 | (1) |
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Expectations Influence Evaluations |
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200 | (1) |
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Recognizing Evaluations in Word Connotations |
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201 | (1) |
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Recognizing Evaluative Words' Persuasive Powers |
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202 | (1) |
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Skilled Use of Evaluations |
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203 | (1) |
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204 | (1) |
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Discarding the Concept o f Man as "Killer Ape," |
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204 | (1) |
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Propaganda and Hidden Evaluations |
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205 | (1) |
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207 | (1) |
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208 | (1) |
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209 | (1) |
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Composition Writing Application |
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First Option: Observing and Analyzing Evaluations in Advertisements |
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209 | (1) |
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Second Option: Writing a Critical Review |
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210 | (1) |
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211 | (4) |
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Porn, Pervasive Presence: The Creepy Wallpaper of Our Lives, |
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215 | (2) |
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Advanced Optional Writing Assignment |
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217 | (1) |
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Optional Internet Research Assignment |
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217 | (2) |
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Chapter 8 Viewpoints: What's the Filter? |
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219 | (27) |
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Understanding the Term Viewpoint |
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220 | (1) |
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What Types of Viewpoints Are There? |
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220 | (1) |
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221 | (1) |
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On Unconscious Viewpoints |
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222 | (2) |
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Recognizing Political and Social Points of View |
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224 | (1) |
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Recognizing Viewpoints Left and Right |
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225 | (1) |
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Diagram: The Left-to-Right Political Spectrum |
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225 | (1) |
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Diagram: The Two-Axis Model of Political Views |
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226 | (1) |
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Beyond the Myth of Objectivity, |
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227 | (3) |
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Composition Writing Application |
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A Survey of Two Alternative Viewpoints in Two Publications |
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230 | (6) |
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Hidden Viewpoints: The Use of News Framing |
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233 | (1) |
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Observing How a Newspaper Frames Its Information |
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234 | (1) |
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235 | (1) |
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235 | (1) |
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236 | (1) |
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Advanced Optional Writing Assignment |
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Essay: Comparing and Contrasting the Reading Audience of Two Magazines |
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236 | (2) |
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The Loyalty Questionnaire from To The Stars, |
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238 | (3) |
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The Real Story Versus the Official Story, |
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241 | (2) |
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Objectives Review of Part II |
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243 | (3) |
| PART III FORMS AND STANDARDS OF CRITICAL THINKING |
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Chapter 9 Argument: What's a Good Argument? |
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246 | (29) |
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Reading and Judging Arguments |
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247 | (1) |
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Critical Reading of Arguments |
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248 | (1) |
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What Viewpoint Is the Source of This Argument? |
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249 | (1) |
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What Is the Issue of Controversy? |
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250 | (2) |
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Box: Arguments and Reports: Different Purposes, Structures, and Standards |
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252 | (1) |
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Is It an Argument or a Report? |
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252 | (3) |
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How Is the Argument Structured in Terms of Reasons and Conclusions? |
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255 | (8) |
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Identifying the Conclusion of an Argument |
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256 | (7) |
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Identifying Reasons and Conclusions |
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259 | (1) |
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More on Distinguishing Reasons from Conclusions 260 |
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260 | (1) |
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260 | (1) |
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Conclusion at the Beginning |
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261 | (1) |
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261 | (1) |
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More Practice in Identifying Reasons and Conclusions |
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261 | (1) |
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More Practice with Longer Arguments |
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262 | (1) |
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Core Discovery Writing Application |
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Writing a Short Persuasive Argument: A Letter of Complaint |
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263 | (5) |
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What Are the Strengths and Weaknesses of This Argument? |
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266 | (1) |
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Detecting Missing Information |
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266 | (1) |
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Detecting False or Contradictory Information |
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268 | (1) |
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The Junkman's Answer to Terrorism: Use More Asbestos |
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268 | (3) |
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270 | (1) |
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Striking a Balance: Civil Liberties Versus National Securitiy |
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271 | (1) |
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by John Ashcroft and Anthony D. Romero |
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272 | (3) |
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Chapter 10 Fallacies: What's a Faulty Argument? |
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275 | (27) |
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276 | (1) |
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276 | (1) |
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Box: Fallacies of Trickery Covered in This Chapter |
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277 | (1) |
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277 | (1) |
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277 | (1) |
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Trickery with Distraction |
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277 | (1) |
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Fallacies That Use Language Trickery |
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278 | (6) |
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278 | (2) |
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Misleading Use of Euphemisms |
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280 | (1) |
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281 | (3) |
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Fallacies Involving Trickery with Emotions |
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284 | (8) |
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Emotional Appeals to Fear and Pity |
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285 | (1) |
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Appeal to False Authority |
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286 | (3) |
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Appeal to Prejudice: Personal Attack and Poisoning the Well |
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289 | (3) |
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Fallacies Using the Trickery of Distraction |
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292 | (6) |
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292 | (2) |
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Pointing to Another Wrong |
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294 | (1) |
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295 | (1) |
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296 | (2) |
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298 | (1) |
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299 | (3) |
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Chapter 11 Inductive Reasoning and Inductive Fallacies: How Do I Reason from Evidence? |
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302 | (45) |
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303 | (1) |
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Answering a Survey on Test Performance |
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303 | (1) |
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Looking at Inductive Reasoning |
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303 | (2) |
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Reasoning from Sensory Observation |
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305 | (1) |
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Reasoning from Enumeration |
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306 | (1) |
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307 | (1) |
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308 | (1) |
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Reasoning from and About Causes |
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309 | (2) |
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Reasoning with Hypotheses |
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311 | (3) |
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Reasoning Through Statistics and Probability |
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314 | (3) |
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Composition Writing Application |
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Working from Facts to Inferences to Hypotheses |
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317 | (5) |
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319 | (1) |
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320 | (1) |
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321 | (1) |
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The Global 2000 Study of 1975: An Interagency Forecast Prepared Under President Jimmy Carter |
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322 | (24) |
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Fallacies of Inductive Reasoning |
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326 | (1) |
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Box: Fallacies of Inductive Reasoning Covered in This Chapter |
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327 | (1) |
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327 | (1) |
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The Either-or Fallacy, or False Dilemma |
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329 | (1) |
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The Questionable Statistic |
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330 | (1) |
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Contradictions and Inconsistencies |
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333 | (1) |
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336 | (1) |
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337 | (1) |
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338 | (1) |
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339 | (1) |
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342 | (1) |
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343 | (1) |
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344 | (2) |
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Advanced Optional Short Research Assignment |
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Detecting Fallacies in an Argument |
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346 | (1) |
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Chapter 12 Deductive Reasoning: How Do I Reason from Premises? |
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347 | (24) |
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What Is Deductive Reasoning? |
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348 | (1) |
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Evaluating Deductive Arguments |
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348 | (1) |
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About Deductive Reasoning |
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349 | (2) |
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The Basic Vocabulary of Logic |
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351 | (4) |
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351 | (1) |
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351 | (1) |
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352 | (1) |
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352 | (1) |
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353 | (1) |
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353 | (2) |
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Standardized Forms in Syllogisms |
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355 | (2) |
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Practice in Constructing Syllogisms |
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356 | (1) |
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357 | (4) |
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What Is Said and Is It True? |
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357 | (2) |
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Is There a Hidden Premise? |
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359 | (1) |
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Is the Reasoning Correct? |
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359 | (4) |
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Reviewing the Vocabulary of Logic |
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361 | (1) |
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The Interplay of Inductive and Deductive Reasoning |
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361 | (1) |
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Box: Chart Comparing Inductive and Deductive Reasoning |
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362 | (1) |
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Composition Writing Application |
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Writing a Deductive Argument |
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363 | (4) |
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364 | (1) |
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365 | (1) |
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366 | (1) |
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The Declaration of Independence (excerpt), |
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367 | (2) |
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Letter from a Birmingham Jail (excerpt), |
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by Martin Luther King, Jr. |
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369 | (1) |
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Objectives Review of Part III |
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370 | (1) |
| Appendix The Research Paper |
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371 | (13) |
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Research Paper Assignments in This Text |
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371 | (1) |
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Two Research Writing Applications: |
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First Research Option: Analysis of Two Arguments Pro and Con on a Recent Controversial Issue |
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371 | (5) |
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Instructions for the Argument Analysis Assignment |
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372 | (1) |
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Outline Form Used in This Assignment |
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372 | (1) |
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373 | (1) |
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373 | (2) |
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375 | (1) |
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Length and Viewpoints of Arguments Selected |
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375 | (1) |
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Second Research Writing Option: An Argumentative Essay Writing an Argumentative Research Essay |
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376 | (3) |
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376 | (1) |
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377 | (1) |
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377 | (1) |
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Suggested Handbooks for Guidance in Research Writing |
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377 | (2) |
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Student Model Paper: Analysis of Two Arguments on the Issue |
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Can Civil Liberties be Maintained Given the New National Security Policies? |
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379 | (5) |
| Index |
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384 | |
Other versions by this Author
