X-Ray Diffraction and the Identification and Analysis of Clay Minerals,9780195087130

X-Ray Diffraction and the Identification and Analysis of Clay Minerals

by ;
Edition: 2nd
ISBN13: 9780195087130
ISBN10: 0195087135
Format: Spiral Bound
Pub. Date: 1997-02-13
Publisher(s): Oxford University Press
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Summary

This successful text/reference, now in a new edition, explores the applications and limitations of data produced by the interaction of X-rays with clay minerals. This edition pays particular attention to integrating the mineralogy of soils and features a new chapter on disorder and polytypes.Chapter Four, from the first edition, has been expanded and split into two chapters, "Structure and Properties: General Treatment" and "Structure, Nonmenclature, and Occurrences of Clay Minerals." Essential in agriculture, geology, and in making informed engineering decisions, this text offers thenecessary information on the properties of these minerals, combining theoretical discussion with recipe-like directions for laboratory procedures. Ideal for students who have completed introductory geology, chemistry, and mineralogy courses, this text can also be used as a reference for researchersand workers in industry.

Table of Contents

Preface to the Second Edition xiii
Preface to the First Edition xv
Introduction and Historical Background
3(25)
History
5(12)
The Discovery of X-Rays
6(4)
The Discovery of X-Ray Diffraction
10(4)
History of Clay Mineralogy
14(3)
The Importance of Clay Mineralogy
17(1)
Clay Minerals as Catalysts
18(4)
The Literature of Clay Mineralogy
22(1)
Summary
23(1)
References
24(4)
Nature and Production of X-Rays
28(33)
Other Methods
28(3)
Safety and Protection
31(1)
Defining a Dose of Radiation
31(2)
The Nature or X-Rays
33(9)
Continuous or White Radiation
33(2)
Characteristic Radiation
35(3)
General Absorption of X-Rays
38(2)
Characteristic Absorption
40(2)
Equipment for Producing and Recording X-Rays
42(16)
Stabilizing the Voltage
42(1)
Generating X-Rays
43(1)
The Diffractometer
44(5)
Step-Scanning with Automated Diffractometers
49(3)
The Single-Crystal Monochromator
52(1)
The Detector
52(2)
Signal Processing Circuitry
54(1)
The Strip-Chart Recorder
55(1)
An Example of a Checklist for Operating XRD Equipment
56(2)
Summary
58(1)
References
59(2)
X-Ray Diffraction
61(43)
Scattering
62(2)
Interference
64(8)
Scattering from a Row of Atoms
64(3)
Scattering from a Three-Dimensional Array of Atoms
67(2)
Bragg's Law
69(1)
Diffraction and Reflection
70(2)
The Arithmetic of Scattering
72(12)
The Summation of Scattering Amplitudes
72(5)
The Structure Factor F
77(2)
Information from Intensity
79(1)
The Reciprocal Lattice
80(4)
Real versus Idealized Peaks on XRD Tracings
84(19)
The Interference Function F: Diffraction from a Crystal Whose Unit Cell Has a Unitary Scattering Factor
88(2)
The Lorentz-Polarization Factors
90(2)
Putting It All Together---Building an 001 Diffraction Pattern
92(5)
Exercise: Calculation of the Intensity from d(001) for Illite
97(6)
Points to Remember
103(1)
References
103(1)
Structure and Properties: General Treatment
104(34)
General Structural Features
104(13)
Tetrahedral Sheets
104(1)
Octahedral Sheets
105(1)
Dioctahedral and Trioctahedral
106(1)
Joining the Sheets
107(5)
Stacking the Layers
112(5)
Properties
117(13)
Total Charge, Layer or Permanent Charge, and Variable Charge
118(2)
Electric Double Layer
120(1)
Exchangeable Ions or Cation-Exchange Capacity
121(2)
Interaction of Water with Clay Mineral Surfaces
123(3)
Interaction with Organic Compounds
126(4)
Classification
130(4)
Nomenclature
132(2)
References
134(4)
Structure, Nomenclature, and Occurrences of Clay Minerals
138(66)
The Individual Clay Minerals
138(29)
The 1:1 Layer Type
138(1)
Serpentine minerals
139(1)
Berthierine
139(1)
Odinite
139(1)
Kaolin minerals
140(4)
Uses of Kaolinite
144(1)
Allophane and imogolite
145(1)
The 2:1 Layer Type, x = 0
146(1)
The 2:1 Layer Type, x ∼ 1
146(1)
The trioctahedral subgroup
147(1)
The dioctahedral subgroup
147(1)
The 2:1 Layer Types with x < 1
148(1)
Illite
149(4)
Glauconite
153(2)
Smectite
155(3)
Alteration of Ash-Fall Layers
158(1)
Vermiculite
158(4)
Chlorite
162(5)
Mixed-Layered Clay Minerals
167(19)
Mixed-layering, interlayering, and interstratification
168(2)
Illite/smectite (I/S)
170(1)
Reichweite or Ordering
171(5)
Models for smectite-to-illite transition
176(1)
MacEwan crystallite model
177(1)
Fundamental particle model
177(2)
Two-solid-solution model
179(2)
Chlorite/smectite (C/S)
181(2)
Serpentine/chlorite
183(1)
Kaolinite/expandables (K/E)
184(1)
Sepiolite and Palygorskite
185(1)
The Origin of Clay Minerals
186(2)
Summary
188(7)
Exercise: Calculating Structural Formulas
189(3)
Exercise: Making Structural Models of Layer Silicates
192(3)
References
195(9)
Sample Preparation Techniques for Clay Minerals
204(23)
Evaluating the Sample
204(2)
Disaggregating the Rock
206(3)
Separating Clay Minerals from Clastic Rocks
206(1)
Separating Clay Minerals from Carbonate Rocks
207(1)
Separating Clay Minerals from Sulfate Rocks
207(1)
Separating Clay Minerals from Unconsolidated Materials
208(1)
Glacial Deposits, North American Interior
208(1)
Chemical Pretreatments
209(2)
Removal of Iron Oxides
209(1)
Removal of Organic Materials
209(1)
Saturating the Clay Minerals with Different Cations
210(1)
Particle-Size Separation
211(3)
Preparing the Oriented Clay Mineral Aggregates
214(6)
The Glass Slide Method
214(1)
The Smear Mount Method
215(1)
The Millipore® Filter Transfer Method
216(2)
The Centrifuged Porous Plate Method
218(1)
Dealing with Curlers or Peelers
219(1)
Making the Random Powder Mount
220(4)
Everyday random powder packs
222(1)
Freeze-dried random powder packs
222(2)
Ethylene Glycol Solvation
224(1)
Final Note
225(1)
References
225(2)
Identification of Clay Minerals and Associated Minerals
227(34)
Clay Mineral Identification---General Principles
228(16)
Illite and Glauconite
233(1)
Chlorite and Kaolinite
233(6)
Vermiculite
239(2)
Smectite
241(2)
Sepiolite, Palygorskite, and Halloysite
243(1)
060 Reflections
244(2)
The Use of hkl Reflections for the Determination of Polytypes
246(2)
Chlorite Polytypes
246(1)
The Kaoline Polytypes
247(1)
The Micas, Illite, and Glauconite
247(1)
Nonclay Minerals
248(11)
Silica Minerals
250(2)
Feldspar
252(2)
Zeolites
254(1)
Carbonates
255(1)
Apatite, Pyrite, and Jarosite
256(1)
Gypsum, Anhydrite, Celestite, and Barite
257(1)
Lepidocrocite, Goethite, Gibbsite, and Anatase
258(1)
Summary
259(1)
References
259(2)
Identification of Mixed-Layered Clay Minerals
261(37)
Mering's Principles and Mixed-Layered Nomenclature
263(7)
The Q Rule, a Broadening Descriptor
266(4)
Mixed-Layered Clay Minerals
270(26)
Illite/Smectite
270(6)
Chlorite/Smectite and Chlorite/Vermiculite
276(8)
Kaolinite/Smectite
284(5)
Serpentine/Chlorite
289(3)
Mica/Vermiculite
292(4)
Summary
296(1)
References
296(2)
Quantitative Analysis
298(32)
Required Sample Characteristics
299(9)
Sample Length
300(1)
Sample Thickness
301(5)
Sample Position
306(1)
Homogeneity of the Sample
307(1)
Equations for Quantitative Analysis
308(9)
Basic Quantitative Diffraction Equation
308(5)
Derivation of a Working Form of the Equation for Analysis
313(3)
The Method of the Orienting Internal Standard
316(1)
Mineral Reference Intensities
317(4)
General Comments
317(1)
Calculated Mineral Reference Intensities
318(3)
Practical Examples of the Application of Reference Intensities
321(1)
Measurement of Peak Intensity
321(6)
Comments and Summary
327(2)
References
329(1)
Disorder in Smectite, Illite/Smectite, and Illite
330(29)
Small Crystals in Reciprocal Space
331(4)
Turbostratic Disorder
335(21)
Theory
335(4)
Smectite
339(1)
Illite/Smectite
339(2)
Rotational Disorder in Illite and Illite/Smectite
341(8)
Cis-Vacant Illite and Interstratified Cis- and Trans-Vacant Illite/Smectite
349(7)
Conclusions
356(1)
References
357(2)
APPENDIX: MODELING ONE-DIMENSIONAL X-RAY PATTERNS 359(14)
The Input Variables
360(2)
Simulating the Instrument
360(1)
Describing the Clay Mineral
360(2)
Theory
362(6)
Structures of the Component Layers
366(2)
Advanced Techniques
368(3)
Pure Minerals
369(1)
Compositional Superstructures
369(1)
Layer Types Not Specifically Included
369(1)
Atom Types Not Incorporated in the Model
370(1)
Defect Broadening
370(1)
References
371(2)
Index 373

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